During the early part of the
twentieth-century, a number of psychologists became increasingly interested in
turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. To be more scientific, they
argued, psychology needed to study only those things that could be measured and
quantified.
What are
Theories?
- What is a theory? ((Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
- A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time.
- A theory explains and predicts behavior.
- A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.
- A theory may be modified.
- Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved.
There are three major learning theories,
Cognitive, behavior and constructivism; here I would like to point out about Cognitive
learning theory.
What is Cognitive?
"Cognitive theorists recognize
that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and
repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although
they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses
over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behaviorist
concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or
reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and
store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187).
Key
Concepts of Cognitive Theory
Ø Schema - An internal knowledge structure. New information is
compared to existing cognitive structures called "schema". Schema may
be combined, extended or altered to accommodate new information.
Ø Three-Stage Information Processing Model - input first enters a
sensory register, then is processed in short-term memory, and then is
transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval.
Ø Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less
than a second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement.
Much of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is
monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary.
Ø Short-Term Memory (STM) - sensory input that is important or
interesting is transferred from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be
retained here for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term
memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM capacity can be increased if
material is chunked into meaningful parts.
Ø Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM
for long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are
"forced" into LTM by rote memorization and over learning. Deeper
levels of processing such as generating linkages between old and new
information are much better for successful retention of material.
Ø Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and
remember. (Cofer, 1971, in Good and Brophy, 1990) If a learner links relatively
meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain.
(Wittrock, Marks, & Doctorow, 1975, in Good and Brophy, 1990)
Ø Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the
beginning or end of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless
that item is distinctly different.
Ø Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention
especially when it is distributed practice. By distributing practices the
learner associates the material with many different contexts rather than the
one context afforded by mass practice.
Ø Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new
tasks or material.
Ø Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with
the learning of new material.
Ø Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a
grocery list, it is easier to remember.
Ø Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a
low-level sensory analysis of their physical characteristics to high-level
semantic analysis of their meaning. (Craik and Lockhart, 1972, in Good and
Brophy, 1990) The more deeply a word is process the easier it will be to
remember.
Ø State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain
context it will be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new
context.
Ø Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to
organize relatively meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic
contexts. For example, the notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the
rhyme: Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit.
Ø Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it
may be more difficult for them to remember and what they remember or how they
conceive of it may also be affected by their prior schema.
Ø Advance Organizers - Ausebels advance organizers prepare the
learner for the material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines
of the material, but are material that will enable the student to make sense
out of the lesson.
Referencing:
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http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentecourse/a/dev_learning.htm
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